4.2a: Metals and Alloys

4.2a
Metals and Alloys
Essential idea: Materials are classified into six basic groups based on their different properties.

Typically hard and shiny with good electrical and thermal conductivity, metals are a very useful resource or the manufacturing industry. Most pure metals are either too soft, brittle or chemically reactive for practical use and so understanding how to manipulate these materials is vital to the success of any application.


Extracting metal from ore
Of the known, naturally occurring elements, the major proportion are metals. The most common of metals is aluminium, followed by iron, and others such as chromium, copper and silver, although these are more scarce.

Metals/ore have to go through processes in order to become actual, usable metals. This process may include the use of a blast furnace, which is extracting the metal from the ore. (this goes for specific metals).

• Production of iron: Iron ores such as magnetite or haematite contain iron oxide. Iron goes through a blast furnace, similar to coke and limestone.
• Production of aluminium: Aluminium goes through an electrolytic process to be made. 

Ferrous and Non-ferrous metals:

Any metal that has iron it it is likely to rust, making it a ferrous metal. 

Non-ferrous metals do not rust and are on most occasions magnetic.

Grain size
Most metals with the exception of mercury tend to be solid at room temperature. When metals are molten, they are held by weak forces and this weakness creates a fluidity enabling the material to flow. A metal once solidified will form a particular structural architecture.

The dendritic crystals found in commercial metals are known as grains. As grains grow to their architectural form they inevitably meet each other at a point that is known as the grain boundary.

Modifying physical properties by alloying, work hardening and tempering 

ALLOYING: Alloys are a mixture that contains at least one metal.

Alloying and foreign atoms

• Alloying increases strength and hardness
• Alloying reduces malleability and ductility, of alloys compared to pure metals.
• This is due to the presence of “foreign” atoms which interfere with the movements of atoms in the crystals during plastic deformation

Examples: solder (lead + tin), stainless steel (steel + chromium), nickel-aluminium alloys

The tensile strength of a metal is increased by alloying, however the malleability and ductility is reduced (which may be a good thing for creating sturdy objects). The increased strength and hardness, and reduced malleability and ductility, of alloys compared to pure metals is due to the presence of "foreign atoms" which interfere with the movements of atoms in the crystals during plastic deformation.

Design criteria for super alloys
Superalloys: is an alloy that exhibits excellent mechanical strength, resistance to thermal creep deformation, good surface stability and resistance to corrosion.

Superalloys can be used at high temperatures, very close to their melting point. The strength of most metals decreases as the temperature increases.

Super alloys are used in Aerospace (e.g. rockets), Aviation (e.g. turbines), Chemical processing industry, nuclear reactors and much more.

Two criteria for super alloys are creep and oxidation resistance.

• Creep is the gradual extension of a material under constant force. Creep and its effect become more pronounced at high temperatures. Resistance to creep is important when components are subjected to high temperatures for long periods. 
• Oxidation resistance and corrosion resistance: Nearly all metals and alloys react with oxygen in the air to form oxides, that is they oxidise or corrode. They may also corrode in the presence of acids and alkalis. Corrosion is a serious problem at high temperatures and in the presence of combustion products such as carbon dioxide and water vapor that exist in turbine engines.

CASE STUDY: Turbine Blades

Recovery and disposal of metals and metallic alloys

Fusion360: Beer Bottle

Fusion360: Lego Brick

Link to the guidance video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DrLOPJq_stc

8.2: Sustainable Consumption

8.2
Sustainable Consumption
Essential idea: Sustainable consumption focuses on reducing the use of resources in a product to minimize its environmental impact.

Designers develop products, services and systems that satisfy basic needs and improve quality of life. To meet sustainable consumption requirements, they must also minimize the use of natural resources, toxic materials and waste, and reduce emissions of pollutants at all stages of the life cycle.


It is not only the role of designers to create markets for sustainable products. Consumers need to change their habits and express a want and need for these products.

Consumer Attitudes and Behaviours
Consumer attitudes and behaviours towards sustainability can be classified into 4 groups:

• Eco-warriors

Actively demonstrate on environmental issues; is an individual who cares about our environment and the diversity of life forms so much that they want to take action. An eco-warrior can be someone such as non-confrontational as a tree sitter or someone who engages in direct action, ranging anywhere from planting tree spikes into trees on public lands, to keep the lumber industry from cutting them down, to sit-ins which occupy a corporate office.

• Eco-champions

Individuals or groups that champion environmental issues within organizations; attempt to introduce or create change in a product, process, or method that takes into account green or environmental issues; is a person who fights or argues for a cause.

• Eco-fans

Individuals or groups that champion environmental issues within organizations. They enthusiastically adopt environmentally friendly practices as consumers, an eco-fan will usually buy anything that is environmentally friendly and will never buy a harmful product.

• Eco-phobes

Actively resent talk of environmental protection; people who are against helping the environment and purposely go against ecological movements. They believe that the environmental problems are irrelevant to their lives or are blown out of proportion.

Eco-labelling and energy labelling schemes
Designers need to be aware of the criteria for different labelling schemes in order to design products that satisfy the criteria. Many eco- and energy labelling schemes have similarities, and international standardisation makes it easier for consumers to understand their meaning and compare products from different contexts.

Labels help consumers make informed choices and will go to benefit the environment.

• The European eco-label believes in sustainable development. They are based on the vision of greening non-food products all over Europe. The eco-label ‘norms’ are decided by the European Union Eco-labeling (EUEB).

• In Australia, Good Environmental Choice Australia (GECA)is committed to credible product information for sustainable development. It is the only environmental labeling program in Australia which indicates the environmental performance of a product during its complete life cycle.

• In the United States there is an eco label named Energy stars, which is a joint program of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and the U.S. Department of Energy that promotes energy efficient products and practices. The Nutriclean label means that products are tested

Creating a Market for Sustainable Products
Many shoppers want green products, but retailers and brand marketers are losing green scales at several key points along the path to a purchase. the largest opportunities to capture shoppers interested in green products involve building awareness, educating shoppers, making green products easier to find and recognise, enhancing in-store communications and inspiring shoppers at the store shelf. Ultimately it is the consumer's choice as to which products they will buy (often based on price alone).

• pricing considerations: ensuring the products proved value-for-money to the customer

• long term costs: having products that have long term considerations such as house insulation: it will save energy in the long run because people won't have to continuously pay for heating systems and it saves money for them as well

• stimulating demand for green products: convincing consumers that green products are of better quality and better towards the environment

• education: consumers need to be aware of the impact of poor environmental choices and how green products could reduct environmental impact.

Pressure groups
An NGO that influences pressure on the government to achieve changes in legal polices. They are not a market segment but they can influence the market and product cycle. These pressure groups are able to exert considerable influence to press for changes on these issues and to support or undermine the development of specific technologies, for example; GM food production. 

ADVANTAGES OF PRESSURE GROUPS:

1. keep governments more responsive to the wishes of the community, especially in elections.
2. able to express the views of minority groups in the community who might not otherwise receive a hearing.

DISADVANTAGES OF PRESSURE GROUPS

1. some pressure groups are just the voices of one person
2. some may be powerful but does not reflect the opinions of their organization's members

Lifestyle and ethical consumerism
Ethical Consumerism: The practice of consciously purchasing products and services produced in a way that minimises social and environmental damage, while avoiding those that have a negative impact on society and the environment.


Lifestyle Consumerism: A social and economic order and ideology that encourages the acquisition of goods and services in ever greater amounts.

• Ethical consumerism: 
• buying products not harmful to the environment and society
• ethically produced products
• example. fair trade coffee (appropriate wages given to farmers, farmers have not been exploited into harvesting coffee)

• Lifestyle consumerism:
• includes customer behaviours
• lifestyle is a way to segment people into groups based on three things :opinions, attitudes, and activities

Implications of "take back" legislation
Take back legislation puts the impetus on manufacturers to deal with the product or waste at the end of its lifecycle. This can mean providing opportunities for recycling and collection, providing information to the consumer about disposal or directly dealing with the obsolete product.

LANDFILLS as a disposal site for most modern day products

Take back legislation is the legislation that holds manufacturers responsible for the environmentally safe recycling or disposal of their end-of-life products. They are expected to provide a financial and/or physical plan to ensure that such products are collected and processed.

• extended producer responsibility encourages designers to reduce 'design for the dump' products - Moore's Law
• eg making computers without PVC or toxic flame retardants; products that are designing to last

Implications on the design cycle

1. Designers
1. must consider the recyclability or re-use of materials
2. consider the design for disassembly
3. work within the cost constraints of the manufacturer
2. Manufacturers
1. must consider added costs
2. must have an interest in design for disassembly and recyclability
3. consider manufacturing techniques and material selection
4. must develop collection systems for their products
3. Consumers
1. extra costs may be passed on to consumers
2. must be responsible for returning the product(s)

8.1: Sustainable Development

8.1 
Sustainable Development
Essential idea: Sustainable development is concerned with satisfying human needs for resources now and in the future without compromising the carrying capacity of the planet.

Designers utilize design approaches that support sustainable development across a variety of contexts. A holistic and systematic approach is needed at all stages of design development to satisfy all stakeholders. In order to develop sustainable products, designers must balance aesthetic, cost, social, cultural, energy, material, health and usability considerations.

Triple bottom line sustainability does not only focus on the profitability of an organization or product, but also the environmental and social benefit it can bring. 

• Sustainability is the long-term maintenance of responsibility, which has environmental, economic and social dimensions. It is the capacity to endure and maintain.
• Sustainable Development meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

Triple Bottom Line
The concept of the triple bottom line means that business success is no longer defined only by monetary gain but also by the impact an organization's activities have on society as a whole - Environmental, Economic, and Social.

1. Social - Social sustainability is designing to develop goods and services for the enhancement of human well-being, maintaining cultural identity, empowerment of local communities, accessibility to resources and services, social and gender equity, and other topic subjects that are concerned with social factors.
2. Environmental - Sustainable environmental practices: it is technically possible to deliver the same or equivalent goods and services with lower environmental impact while maintaining social and equity benefits. 
3. Economic - Economic development increases the GDP and spending power of people; may be hard to balance with environmental considerations. Sustainable economic development is necessary so that people are not demanding too much products that may perhaps be made in an unsustainable way. Economic considerations would be maintaining economic growth through the use of improving productivity as well as reducing resource use and reducing environmental impact.

Decoupling
Decoupling is a strategy for sustainability . Decoupling refers to disconnecting two trends so that one no longer depends on the other. Through the act of decoupling (using resources more productively and redesigning production systems), it is technically possible to deliver the same or equivalent goods and services with lower environmental impact while maintaining social and equity benefits.

Decoupling Impacts and Resources

• Breaking the link between "environmental bads" and "economic goods" - having rates of increasing wealth greater than the rates of increasing impacts, thus creating a more dire need to disconnect economic growth and environmental impact.
• Resource decoupling means getting more efficiency from the resources we use, so that we can spread the use of our finite resources out over a longer time frame.
• Impact decoupling means using processes that leave a smaller footprint on the ecosystem, so that our building and manufacturing do not harm the ecosystem. WE need a healthy ecosystem for our own survival.

International and National Laws
The use of international and national laws promotes sustainable development. Nations need to adhere to the treaties or laws usually through enforceable domestic legislation. 

1. International and national laws encourage companies to focus on something other than the shareholder value and financial performance
2. Adopting a corporate strategy that has the support of the shareholders/stakeholders can be difficult to achieve - thus increasing the effectiveness of the implementation of laws.
3. These international agreements could consist of efforts on how to tackle environmental issues and concerns; such as reducing greenhouse gasses, relying on public transport to reduce vehicle emissions, or pursuing renewable energy alternatives.

CASE STUDIES OF INTERNATIONAL LAW AND TREATIES

• The Earth Summit - Rio de Janeiro (1992)
• Kyoto Protocol (1997)
• The Copenhagen Accord (2009) 
• Paris Agreement (2015)

Sustainability Reporting
Businesses produce sustainability reports for the interests of governments, manufacturers, and consumers. A sustainability report is a company report that focuses on four aspects of performance. Sustainability reporting is a vital step towards achieving a sustainable global economy. 

• Economic
• Environmental
• Social
• Governance

Benefits to Governments:
Sustainability information can be used by governments to access the impact and contribution of business to the economy and to understand which issues are being tackled. It creates transparency; can help markets function more efficiently and indicate the health of the economy; and help drive progress by all organizations towards a smart, sustainable and inclusive growth.

Benefits to Manufacturers:
Organizations can use reporting to inform their risk analysis strategies and boost their business systems. A growing number of companies see sustainability reporting as a means to drive greater innovation through their businesses and products to create a competitive advantage in the market. It can reduce their compliance costs paid to the government.

• can use for manufacturing
• enhanced branding or reputation
• potential cost savings

Benefits to Consumers:
Builds trust. It reveals the company's contribution to a green economy. Consumers want to know whether a company is performing in a globally responsible manner from an environmental perspective and a social perspective. It can also provide the consumer with greater innovation thus providing choice of new products.

Product Stewardship

Product stewardship is a concept in which everyone is involved in the making, selling, buying, or handling equipment (products) takes responsibility for minimizing environmental impact of the equipment at all stages in their life cycle. Designers may need to respond to consumer pressure as more consumers become aware of resource issues and product labelling. 

Process of product making

Product stewardship examples include organic foods, genetically modified food, bio-plastics, forests, and green/organic cotton.