2.2 Waste Mitigation Strategies

2.2 Waste Mitigation Strategies
Essential Idea: Waste mitigation strategies can reduce or eliminate the volume of material disposed to landfill. 


Re-use, Recycle, Repair, Recondition, Re-engineer, Pollution/Waste
What waste mitigation strategies can reduce or eliminate the volume of material disposed to landfill? Waste mitigation strategies can reduce or eliminate materials directed to landfill. The prevention, monitoring, and handling waste, coming up with solutions to deal with pollution and waste. 

Re-use Reuse of the same product in the same context or a different context 


Repair The reconstruction or renewal of any part of an existing structure or device; to mend/restore/service faulty equipment, the life-cycle of many products is designed so that they/or parts deteriorate over time.


Recycle Recycling refers to using the materials from obsolete products (waste) to create other products


Recondition Rebuilding a product so that it is an "as new" condition, and is generally used in the context of car engines and tires. 


Re-engineer To redesign components or products to improve their characteristics or performance


Dematerialization Reducing the quantities of materials - trying to "do more with less" by looking at the constraints of the materials we use, through reduction and reuse of materials.

Methodologies for Waste Reduction and Designing Out Waste

Life Cycle Analysis Refers to the overall impact of a product - it is a technique to assess environmental impacts associated with all the stages of a product's life from cradle to grave (i.e., processing, manufacture, distribution, use, repair and maintenance, and disposal or recycling). It is essentially the assessment of the effect a product has on the environment. 

Dematerialization


Dematerialization is a powerful strategy that many manufacturers are now pursuing to improve their triple-bottom line. Through product and process design and innovation, manufacturers and their suppliers are figuring out how to do more with less, using strategies such as de-weighting, use of recycled materials, and design for durability, re-use, and recycling.


Key definition: it is the reduction of total material and energy throughout any product and service, and thus the limitation of its environmental impact.

Product Recovery Strategies at End of Life/Disposal
I. Recycling Recycling refers to using the materials from obsolete products to create other products. For example, recycling aluminium cans.

II. Raw Material Recovery This refers to the process of separating the component parts of a product to recover the parts and materials. For example, retrieving the modular components of a phone

III. WEEE Recovery Abbreviated from 'The Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive', it is the European Community directive 2012/19/EU on waste electrical and electronic equipment.

WEEE is a complex mixture of materials and components that, because of their hazardous content, and if not properly managed, can cause major environmental and health problems. 

IV. Energy Recovery Waste-to-energy (WtE) or energy from waste (EfW) is the process of generating energy in the form of electricity and/or heat from the primary treatment of waste. Most WtE processes produce electricity and/or heat directly through combustion, or produce a combustible fuel commodity, such as methane, methanol, ethanol, or synthetic fuels.

Bio-bean is an example of such - using coffee to produce energy.  

  Circular Economy with the Use of Waste as a Resource within a Closed Loop System
The concept of a circular economy requires designers to consdier the subsequent use of materials, components, and the embedded energy in a product. This can only be achieved by innovative design and consideration of further cycles of development. Designers must ask themselves the question, "How can this product be made to be made again?"



There are three central strands to this concept: cradle-to-cradle, design thinking, design for disassembly, and design inspired by nature that favors diversity and which there is no waste. 

Key definition: An economy model in which resources remain in use for as long as possible, form which maximum value is extracted while in use, and the products and materials are recovered and regenerated at the end of the product life cycle.

2.1 Resources and Reserves

2.1 Resources and Reserves
Essential Idea: Resource management and sustainable production carefully consider three key issues; consumption of raw materials, consumption of energy, and production of waste, in relation to managing resources and reserves effectively and making production more stable.

Renewable Resources
A natural resource that can replenish with the passage of time [replenished on a human timescale] or does not abate at all - examples include solar, wind, hydro, wave, tidal, thermal and bio fuels. 

A natural resource qualifies as a renewable resource if it is replenished by natural processes at a rate almost the same as its rate of consumption by humans or other users.

There is an increasing pressure to use renewable energy sources due to the on-going issue globally of ever increasing costs of oil due to political instability and issues with the security of supply. The issues of the greenhouse effect are leading to noticeable climate change and other pollution.


Examples of renewable resources

There are limitations of the use of renewable energy resources as alternatives for fossil fuels and much talk about the extent to which we can replace our dependence on for fossil fuels with energy derived from renewable resource. While renewable energy holds great promise, there are some limitations to renewable forms of energy such as the high-set up costs, unreliable supply and low energy density.

Non-renewable Resources
A non renewable resource (also can be called a 'finite' resource) is a resource that does not replenish itself at a sufficient rate for sustainable economic extraction, and this includes coal, petroleum, and natural gas

Modern industrial societies have become dependent on non-renewable fossil fuels as the major sources of energy supply and electricity production because they are cheap and plentiful supplies for electricity production and other energy needs. However, the depletion of supplies of coal, oil, and gas challenges continuity of supply in the longer term.

Reserves vs Resources
A resource is a term used for the theoretical referencing of a source - eg. coal is a resource.
A reserve is the actual available natural resource that has been identified in terms of quantity and quality - economically extracted.

Renewability
Renewability relates to a resource that can be replenished over time or is inexhaustible, for example, wood from trees, and fresh drinking water.



Summary

5.7 Innovation, Design, and Marketing Specifications

5.7
Innovation, Design, and Marketing Specifications
Designers must establish clear parameters for a marketing specification in order to create unique and creative solutions to a problem. Designers need to collect valid and useful data from the target market and audience throughout the design cycle to ensure the specification includes certain essential components.

Target markets
Target Market When determining the target market, the market sectors and segments need to be identified. Target markets can be separated by the following aspects:

• Geographic For example, their addresses, location, climate, region
• Demographic / Socioeconomic For example, their gender, age, income, occupation, education, household size, and stage in the family life cycle
• Psychographic For example, similar attitudes, values, and lifestyles
• Behavioral For examples, a person's relationship to a product (occasions or degrees of loyalty)

Market segments table:

Target audiences
Target audience A specific group of people within the target market at which a product or the marketing message of a product is aimed at. 

Target market relates to the sectors and segments, whereas a target audience is a specific group of people within the target market.

Market analysis
Market Analysis An appraisal of economic viability of the proposed design from a market perspective, taking into account fixed and variable costs and pricing. It is typically a summary about potential users and the market.

Economic Viability An activity that can support itself financially - it can be applied to any economic unit, from a single project, to a business, to a country.

Fixed Costs Are not dependent on the level of goods or services produced by the business. They tend to be time-related, such as salaries or rent and they are often referred to as overhead costs.

User Need A marketing specification should identify the essential requirements that the product must satisfy in relation to the market and user need.

Competition
A thorough analysis of competing designs is required to establish the market need.


Every product you take to market, even ones that are new inventions or improvements on old products, face competition. This is because customers buy products for many different reasons. Some are interested in the innovation of new products, others care more about price point and clever marketing schemes. Your competition will capitalize on these buyer preferences and seek to edge out your product from the market. Identifying the competition in your marketing specification helps the organization to clarify how it can edge out and respond to the competition.

• Measuring against an existing product to evaluate competitiveness

Designers will often evaluate their products against an existing 'benchmark' - most often a product that is seen as being dominant or having the minimum required features needed in order to be successful 

• To check compliance with national or international standards

Many products will fall under national or international standards. Although these standards are not usually mandatory, consumers will want and expect their products to meet the standards. Products that do not meet standards are unlikely to gain success in the marketplace.

Research methods
There is a range of research methods, and these include:

Literature Search This is performed using authoritative sources such as: academic journals, books, theses, consumer magazines, government agency, industry publications, etc.

User Trials This method is a trial where members of the community who will use the product are observed using the product - usually in a lab environment and participants have set tasks to perform under controlled conditions.

User Research The questioning of users about their experience using a product - can be a questionnaire or focus group.

Expert Appraisal Where an expert (chosen on the basis of their knowledge or experience) is asked to give their opinion.

Performance Testing This method tests the physical attributes of a product and tests it against different criteria.

Design Specifications
A design specification relates to the requirements of a product and details aspects of:

1. Aesthetic requirements
2. Cost constraints
3. Customer requirements
4. Environmental requirements
5. Size constraints
6. Safety considerations
7. Performance requirements and constraints
8. Materials requirements
9. Manufacturing requirements

5.6 Roger's Characteristics

5.6
Rogers' Characteristics
Rogers’ four main elements that influence the spread of new ideas (innovation, communication channels, time and a social system) rely heavily on human capital. The ideas must be widely accepted in order to be self- sustainable. Designers must consider various cultures and communities to predict how, why and at what rate new ideas and technology will be adopted.

ROGERS' THEORY OF DIFFUSION OF INNOVATION attempts to identify and explain the factors that lead to people and groups adopting innovations (new ideas and technologies).

Diffusion and innovation
Diffusion The wide acceptance and sale of a product or innovation

Diffusion of innovations is a theory that seeks to explain how, why and at what rate new ideas and technology will spread through cultures. The innovation must be widely adopted in order to self-sustain. 

Research elements of diffusion

1. Innovation - the new object or product designed
2. Communication channels - the way the message moves from one to another
3. Time - The innovation-decision period is the length of time required to pass through the innovation-decision process
4. Social systems - a set of interrelated units that are engaged in joint problem-solving to accomplish a common goal.

The impact of Rogers’ characteristics on consumer adoption of an innovation
“In general, innovations that are perceived as having relative advantages, being more compatible, less complex, observable, and trialable will diffuse more rapidly than other innovations. In general, innovations that are perceived as having relative advantages, being more compatible, less complex, observable, and trialable will diffuse more rapidly than other innovations.” 

Rogers' five characteristics that impact on consumer adoption of an innovation are:

• Relative Advantage How improved an innovation is over the previous generation
• Compatibility The level of compatibility that an innovation has to be assimilated into an individual's life
• Complexity If the innovation is perceived as complicated or difficult to use, an individual is unlikely to adopt it 
• Observability The extent that an innovation is visible to others. An innovation that is more visible will drive communication among the individual's peers and personal networks and will, in turn, create more positive or negative reactions.
• Trialability How easily an innovation may be explored; if a user is able to test an innovation, the individual will be more likely to adopt it.

Each of these factors have their own respective impacts on the consumer adoption of an innovation. It could be either the presence or absence of a certain quality that reduces or increases the likelihood of consumers accepting the product.

Social roots of consumerism
Consumerism A social and economic order and ideology that encourages the acquisition of goods and services in ever-greater amounts. Consumerism is sometimes used in referenece to the anthropological and biological phenomena of people purchasing goods and consuming materials in excess of their basic needs.

" A paradigm shift in the experience of shopping "

Influence of social media on diffusion of innovation:
Social media connects people around the world quickly and with ease - and this connectivity drives and relays the message across the world and can lead to increased desires or impulses to buy certain things. This could be due to the advertisements or recognition of new products and therefore people are more likely to try out . anew product. (using social media to raise brand awareness)

The impact of Roger's Characteristics on Consumer Adoption of an Innovation

Innovators are the first individuals to adopt an innovation

Early adopters are the second fastest category to adopt an innovation

Early majority the third group tends to take more time to consider adopting new innovations and is inclined to draw from feedback from early adopters before taking the risk of purchasing new products/ systems

Late majority adopts the innovation after it has been established in the marketplace and is seldom willing to take risks with new innovation

Laggards are the last to adopt an innovation - they tend to prefer traditions and are unwilling to take risks.

5.5 Product Life Cycle

Product Life Cycle
Designers need to consider the whole product cycle of potential products, services and systems throughout the design cycle and beyond. Products may have an impact not only on the direct consumer but also on society at large and the environment.

Product Life Cycle: A description of the presence or behaviours of a product in the marketplace over time. 


Key Stages of the Product Life Cycle












Innovation and the continuous development of new and improved products are key to the design process. Product life cycle is a business technique that attempts to list the stages in the lifespan of commercial/consumer products. Such stages include;

Launch (Introduction Phase) With any new product or service you must introduce it to the marketplace. It is necessary to launch the product with the right image and at the right price. It is also important to have adequate infrastructure to support this product - poor distribution can mean problems in the future. TO introduce a new product to the marketplace will require significant investment.

Growth Phase Once your product has survived the introduction phase it will need to grow; it is at this stage it is hoped that sales and profits grow to desirable levels.

Maturity Phase The profit revenue from the product is falling and price reductions are necessary in order to remain competitive. It is likely that your customer base is as wide as it will go.

Decline Phase Falling sales means that customers are exhausting the product cycle and it is in decline, possibly due to market decline. This can translate to a product extension however (instead of a decline) with marketing strategies such as a relaunch or modification in design.



Obsolescence
Obsolescence is the process of becoming obsolete or outdated and no longer used. Below are the four main reasons behind why obsolescence occurs;

Planned Obsolescence / Built-in Obsolescence A product becomes outdated as a conscious act either to ensure a continuing market or to ensure that safety factors and new technologies can be incorporated into later versions of the product. [artificially limited product lifespan in hopes of return purchases]. It has moral implications not only on the consumer but also on excessive, unnecessary environmental waste.


Style (fashion) Fashions and trends change over time, which can result in a product no longer being desirable (undesirability of old fashioned items). However, as evidenced by the concept of retro styling and the cyclic nature of fashion, products can become desirable again. Products can be redesigned whilst maintaining its technical specifications to cater to the market.


Functional Over time, products wear out and break down. If parts are no longer available, the product can no longer work in the way it originally did. Also, if a service vital to its functioning is no longer available, it can become obsolete. 



Technological When a new technology supersedes an existing technology, the existing technology quickly falls out of use and is no longer incorporated into new products. Consumers instead opt for the newer, more efficient technology in their products. It is a form of functional obsolescence due to the rapid pace of technological change - and one of the biggest causes for obsolescence.


Predictability of the Product Life Cycle
Predictability  The rate of technological advancement has given birth to very short product life cycles especially with technical products; you can expect something to get replaced every year, for example.



Unpredictability While a product's life may be limited, it can be hard for manufacturers to product exactly how long it is likely to be, especially during the new product development phase. While most manufacturers are very good at making the best decisions based on the information they have, consumer demand can be unpredictable, which means they don't always get it right.

Product versioning Product versioning is a business practice in which a company produces different models of the same product, and then charges different prices for each model. Versioning a product gives the consumer the option of purchasing a higher valued model for more money or a lower valued model for less money. 


Product Versioning / Generations
Product Versioning is offering a range of products based on a core or initial product market segments.A company can maintain a pioneering strategy and consistent revenue flow by introducing new versions or generations of a product to a market. Apple uses this strategy effectively, creating multiple versions and generations of their iPod®, iPhone® and iPad® products.



Advantages:

• Improved consumer choice: consumers can choose the version thats suits them.
• Improved consumer choice: can choose a budget level such as Quicken tax software
• Maximise profits for the company hopefully through increased sales.