3.3 Physical Modelling

3.3
Physical Modelling
Essential Idea: A physical model is a three-dimensional, tangible representation of a design or system

Designers use physical models to visualize information about the context that the model represents. It is very common for physical models of large objects to be
scaled down and smaller objects scaled up for ease of visualization.

1. can be used to obtain important data such as test and simulation measurements
2. allows the user to better understand the problem
3. allows for manipulation and changes to design
4. observations with the internal structure or external structure

Scale Models
:
a model that is either a smaller or larger physical copy of an object

• accurate physical representations of objects or features of objects
• able to allow the design team, client, or manufacturer visualize and/or manipulate the object
• scaled down or up; keeping all sizes of the features in relation to each other
• visualize the structure and form of an object 
• unforeseen factors are highlighted

Aesthetic Models
:
a model developed to look and feel like the final product

• An aesthetic/appearance prototype
• Not functioning
• Concerned with form, color, style, texture, and how the product fits in its visual environment
• Can be used for ergonomic testing, evaluating visual appeal and matching manufacturing systems
• Can be more complicated and stimulate weight

Mock-ups:
a scale or full-size representation of a product used to gain feedback from users 

• used to test ideas and gather feedback
• can be full-scale or scaled models
• can have some level of functionality, can also be considered a prototype
• a good example of how design begins and gets to the mock up stage
• saves costs by avoiding going into production with a design which needs improvement 
• used to determine proportions / fitting into spaces 
• can be used for promotion


Prototypes



Instrumented Models

3.2 Graphical Modelling

3.2

Graphical Modelling

Essential Idea: Graphical models are used to communicate design ideas

Graphical models can take many forms, but their
prime function is always the same—to simplify the
data and present it in such a way that understanding
 of what is being presented aids further development
or discussion.

Designers utilize graphical modelling 
as a tool to explore creative solutions and refine ideas from the technically impossible to the technically possible, widening the constraints of what is feasible.

2D and 3D graphical models


2D physical models: Using sheet materials such as card or polypropylene can be used to make 2d physical models. 2D physical modelling is an extension of sketching and provides the designers with some solutions to their thinking and enables them to progress with their idea knowing that their ideas function.

2D Virtual Modelling: can also be hand drawn

3D Models: Designers use models as a representation of reality and as a representation of the selected features of a design. Models can be used throughout the design process from conceptual thinking to final development. Can be done in two ways – physical modelling and virtual modelling

 

Perspective and scale drawings

Projection Drawings  Systems of drawings that are accurately drawn, the two main types are isometric projection (formal drawing technique) or orthographic projection (working drawing technique)

Scale Drawings  Drawings that are bigger or smaller than the real product, but exactly in proportion with product

Working Drawings  Drawings that are used to guide the production of a product, most commonly orthographical projection, section drawings, part drawings, assembly drawings and plan drawings.

Orthographic Drawings / Orthogonal / Projections

• A series of flat (2D) views of an object showing it exactly as it is in shape and size i.e. constructional details.
• An orthographic drawing shows all details and dimensions and is usually used as a production/working drawing.
•  It is a convergent thinking style of drawing.
• Orthographic drawings are produced at the final solution stage and are used as working drawings in the realization stage.

  

  3rd Angle Projection

• International conventions need to be used, such as, 3rd Angle projection, ISO, scale, units, etc which will be explained in criterion C.

Isometric Drawing / Projection  An isometric drawing depicts the proposed solution in 3D, showing shape and form.

 

Exploded Isometric Drawing 

• An isometric drawing of an object with more than one component that depicts how the parts of assemblies fit together.
• The drawing is exploded to show component parts of a product and/or the sequence of assembly.
• Isometric  drawings are produced at the final solution stage and are used as working drawings in the realization stage

Perspective Drawing  A set of formal drawing techniques that depicts an object as getting smaller and closer together the further away they are. The techniques are one-point perspective, two-point perspective, and three-point perspective.

Scale Drawings  The need to scale drawings is when the object is either too large or too small to create. Scale depends on a basic understanding of ratios so that an appropriate scale/ratio is chosen. A scale drawing shoes a real object with accurate sizes except they have all been reduced or enlarged by a certain ratio


Sketching versus formal drawing techniques

Sketches  Rough drawings of ideas used to convey or refine the idea

• Spontaneous representations of ideas on paper without the use of technical aids
• Designers use a range of freehand drawings in the early stages of developing ideas to explore shape and form (3D) and constructional details (2D)
• Divergent thinking is prominent at this stage
• Often use annotations to explain the thinking behind visual image

Formal drawing techniques  A type of drawing technique that has fixed rules, the most widely used being isometric projection and perspective drawing

• Include: orthogonal, isometric, exploded isometric, sectional parts and assembly drawings which are done with great precision and usually with mechanical drawing aids or in CAD programs
• Designers use these drawings at the realization or development stage where the product is to be made. They are used to communicate to the manufacturer
• Convergent thinking is prominent at this stage

Part and assembly drawings

Assembly Drawing  A diagram that shows how components fit together to make a whole –drawings are typically presented in an exploded view.

Component Drawing [Parts]   Orthographic drawings of the components of an assembly containing details just about that component.

Parts Drawing  Provides the information to assemble a product with the added benefit of having a list of parts [LOP] or a bill of materials [BOM]

3.1 Conceptual Modelling

3.1

Conceptual Modelling

Essential Idea: A conceptual model originates in the mind and its primary purpose is to outline the principles, processes, and basic functions of a design or system.

Designers use conceptual modelling to assist their understanding by simulating the subject matter they represent. Designers should consider systems, services and products in relation to what they should do, how they should behave, what they look like and whether they will be understood by the users in the manner intended.

Definition: A model that exists in the mind used to help us know and understand ideas.

The Role of Conceptual Modelling in Design

Conceptual modelling is the abstraction of a simulation model from the part of the real world it is representing. Abstraction implies the need for simplification of the real system and for assumptions about what is not known about the real system. In other words, all simulation models are simplifications of the real world. 

Conceptual models are:

• a model of concepts or ideas (abstract) that exist in the mind
• used to help us know and understand, design thinking, ideas, casual relationships, principles, data, systems, algorithms or processes
• used to illustrate relationships that is in the designers mind to others
• able to help explain the thinking behind new ideas
• able to help us communicate with other members of design team, manufacturer, or client
• able to help us visualize ideas through graphic, physical, and virtual models

Conceptual Modelling Tools and Skills

How conceptual models are used to communicate with oneself and others:

Graphical Model  A visualization of an idea, often created on paper or through software, in two or three dimensions.

Physical Model  The creation of a smaller or larger tangible version of an object that can be physically interacted with.    

Virtual Model  Photorealistic CAD-based interactive models that use surface and solid modelling. They can be considered ‘digital mock-ups’.

Flow Chart Modelling Modelling in flow charts to demonstrate how the system works, including the user experience

Conceptual Models Vary in Relation to the Context

Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages

• Shares the 'big picture'
• Makes it easy for non-designers and non-technical people to understand a complex idea
• communication with clients and users
• communications with team members
• ability to manipulate ideas better than with drawings alone
• helps establish proportion
• gauge peoples' reaction to concept or idea

Disadvantages

• lacks detail
• can be misinterpreted 
• scale models can be misleading 
• Materials may not reflect the final choice; difficult to emulate
• simplicity of model can lead to vital aspects of a concept being left out.

2.6 Eco Design

2.6

Eco Design

Essential Idea: Eco-design considers the design of a product throughout its life cycle (from cradle to grave) using lifecycle analysis. 

Eco design is a more comprehensive approach than green design because it attempts to focus on all three broad environmental categories: materials, energy, pollution and waste. This makes eco design more complex, longer time scale, and difficult due to its holistic approach. 

The Major Considerations of the United Nations Environmental Programme Manual on Eco-design of 1996

• reduce the creation and use of toxic materials
• increase recyclability
• reduce energy consumption
• increase use of renewable resources
• increase product durability – reducing planned obsolescence
• reduce material requirements for products and services

Eco Design Philosophies

Cradle to Grave  is a design philosophy that considers the environmental effects of a product all the way from manufacture to disposal. It is a key principle of the linear economy where products live a single use before disposal 

Cradle to Cradle  is a design philosophy that aims to eliminate waste from the production, use and disposal of a product. It centers on product that are to be made again.

Life Cycle Analysis 

The assessment of the effect a product has on the environment (LCA) through five stages of its life: pre-production; production; distribution (including packaging); utilization; and disposal.

• Designers use LCA to assess and balance environmental impact over a product’s life cycle.
• It can highlight areas with opportunities to reduce the environmental impact.
• It makes the designer to think about changing product design to reduce the impact such a green or sustainable product designs
• LCAs can help avoid a narrow outlook on environmental concerns by also evaluating its impact, aiding in informed decisions, and compiling an inventory of relevant energy and material inputs and environmental releases.

The stages of LCA include:

• Pre-production,
• Natural resources
• Effect on environment 
• Transport of raw materials 
• Production,
• Is the process of manufacturing the protect - can have damaging effects to the environment or minimal
• Distribution including packaging, 
• Includes the transportation of product from factory to warehouse, store, and others 
• Could have a large impact depending on the materials used for packaging
• Utilization, 
• The product’s use and effect on the environment
• Disposal
• Depends on the product and the method of disposal – can it be recycled?
• Biodegradable objects can be reused, recycled, or left to be broken down back into the soil.

The Role of the Designer, Manufacturer, and User

Consideration of the environmental impact of any product, service, or system during its life cycle should be instigated at the earliest stage of design and continue through to disposal. Designers should have a firm understanding of their responsibility to reduce the ecological impact on the planet.

Here is a matrix of the levels of development for the designer, manufacturer, and consumer respectively:

Designer  Designer will have to plan the products obsolescence and how the object will be used, including its primary functions

Manufacturer  The manufacturer has more of an involvement with the production and distribution (including packaging) because they will have more of an involvement with the selection of materials, for example, sustainable materials compared to single use.

User  The user is mostly involved with the utilization and disposal of the product, and whether the product ends up being reused or recycled. This also includes purchasing habits and purchasing power.

Environmental Impact Assessment Matrix

Environmental impact assessment matrices generally consist of the entire life cycle analysis and can also be specific to each stage – for example, only going into full depths and analysis of the production stage. The environmental impact assessment matrix breaks down the processes into individual steps and focuses on the output in terms of resources used [these can include anything from water and soil pollution to energy consumption to air contamination].

Characteristics 

• Organizes the life cycle stages and the environmental considerations into an environmental impact assessment matrix in which elements differ in importance according to the particular design context (prioritization)
• Re-designing of  product or its manufacture can be altered once identified the areas of highest environmental impact
• For example, selecting less toxic materials or redesigning of its packaging can be implemented having identified this
• BUT a team of different specializations will be required to be able to accurately outline the environmental impact

Example of assessment matrix on air pollution specifically:

Example of assessment matrix on entire LCA:

Environmental and Economic Perspective

The impact of production and manufacturing methods and uses on a geographical scale:

Local: noise, smell, air pollution, soil and water pollution

Regional: soil and water over fertilization and pollution, drought, waste disposal, air pollution

Fluvial [found in rivers]: Pollution of rivers, regional waters, and watersheds

Continental: Ozone levels, acidification and winter smog, heavy metals

Global: Climate change, sea level rise, impact on the ozone layer

The impact of internal and external drivers for eco-design from an economic perspective:

Internal

• Manager’s sense of responsibility
• The need for increased product quality
• The need for a better product and company image
• The need to reduce costs
• The need for innovative power
• The need to increase personnel motivation

External 

• Government 
• Market demand
• Social environment 
• Competitors 
• Trade organizations
• Supplies

2.5 Green Design

2.5

Green Design

Essential Idea: Green design integrates environmental considerations into the design of a product without compromising its integrity, and reducing its environmental impact

Green design refers to the development of products to have a reduced impact on the environment, without causing irreversible damage to ecosystem health. The difference between “green” and “sustainable” is essentially that “sustainable” refers to the social and economic benefits whilst protecting the public health, wealthfare, and environment. 

Design Objectives for Green Products

Materials

• Environmentally friendly packaging
• Minimizing the number of different materials used in a product
• Labelling the materials for recycling
• 
  

Energy 

• Reducing the amount of energy used 
• Increasing the efficiency
• Reducing the embodied energy and the potential impact

Pollution and Waste

• Minimizing long term pollution and waste 
• Analyzing and minimizing potential safety hazards - where will it end up?
• Reducing long term harm eg. waste
• Reducing environmental damage or pollution from the materials selected
• Reducing or negating noise or smell pollution 

Product life cycle, Life Cycle Analysis, Life Cycle/Environmental impact matrix

Green legislation

Timescale to implement green design

Drivers for Green Design (Consumer Pressure and Legislation)

Consumer Pressure: Collections of individuals who hold a similar viewpoint on a particular topic, for example the environment, who take action to promote positive change to meet their goals.

• Public have become more aware of environmental issues through media focus; thus consumers can make the choice of more sustainable products
• This public awareness has put pressure on corporations through voting and purchasing power
• Consumers will also seek energy efficient products

Legislation: Environmental legislation has encouraged the design of greener products that tackle specific environmental issues, for example, eliminating the use of certain materials or energy efficiency – it can be incremental, making it easier to apply 

• Environmental legislation has encouraged the design of greener products that tackle specific environmental issues, for example, eliminating the use of certain materials or energy efficiency
• Can lead to financial penalties as a deterrent from unsustainable methods of production to the materials used

Examples:

• Government legislation requiring the declaration of plastic types for recycling
• Ban on CFCs (harmful greenhouse gasses) 
• Ban on using styrofoam containers
• Green/High-Performance Building Legislation in the States

“The Designer’s Role”

The environmental impact of the production, use, and disposal of a product can be modified by the designer through careful consideration at the design stage. Designers have the choice of materials, processes, amongst others, to encourage sustainable design. 

Design Objectives for Green Products

Again, the design objectives for green products relate to three essential broad environmental categories: materials, energy, and pollution/waste.

As such, the objectives include:

• Increasing efficiency in the use of materials, energy, and other resources
• Minimizing the damage or pollution from the chosen materials
• Reducing to a minimum any long term harm
• Taking into full account the effects of the end disposal of the product
• Minimizing community nuisances / negative impacts
• Labelling products to be identifiable for recycling 
• Minimizing the number of different materials used in a product

Example in green building:

Strategies for Designing Green Products

Incremental Innovation  is referred to product improvement over time leading to new versions and generations as a result of small changes applied to the product. It may include changes to the materials (to recyclable), material optimization, manufacturing techniques, and designing for disassembly (end-of-pipe).

Radical Innovation  is when a new product is devised by going back to the roots of a problem and thinking about the solution in a different way, creating an entirely new product design or idea. Some examples include an overhaul of the manufacturing process to using radical clean technology systems. A high level of uncertainty is associated with radical innovation projects, especially at early stages. 

Extension on strategies:

Consider the following;

• Raw materials used
• Packaging
• Reducing the incorporation of toxic materials or VoCs
• End-of-life disposal issues
• Production methods

The Prevention Principle

The prevention principle is defined to be the avoidance or minimization of producing waste in relation to the production, use, and disposal of a product. This means that the actions must be taken before damage occurs.

The Precautionary Principle

The precautionary principle is defined to be the anticipation of a potential problem or problems in relation to the environmental impact of the production, use, and disposal of a product.