1.1a: Anthropometrics

1.1a
Anthropometrics
Essential idea: Designers consider anthropometrics to ensure products meet ergonomic needs.


Design is human centered and, therefore, designers need to ensure that the products they design are the right size for the user and therefore comfortable to use. Designers have access to data and drawings, which state measurements of human beings of all ages and sizes. Designers need to consider how users will interact with the product or service. Use and misuse is an important consideration.


Human Factors
The term Human Factors is used for the combination of ergonomics and anthropometrics. Human Factors is also known as comfort design, functional design, and user-friendly sytems, is the practice of designing products, systems, or processes to take proper account of the interaction between them and the people that use them.

Human Factors aims to:

• Reduce stress and fatigue on people, as they will be able to do things faster, more easily, more safely and make less mistakes (reduced errors)
• Increases safety
• Increase ease of use
• Enhance operational comfort
• Improve system performance, reliability and maintenance

Using anthropometrics to design ergonomic products

Anthropometric data: static and dynamic data, structural and functional data
Anthropometrics is the study of the different sizes of people. Knowing the sizes of people and their body parts aids designers in the development of products and spaces which are comfortable or adjustable and increases the ease of use.

Design is human/user centered so designers need to ensure that the products they design are the right size for the user and comfortable to use.

Anthropometric data can be presented as a percentile range graph (bell shape curve) which shows the proportion of the population with a particular dimension:



ANTHROPOMETRICS DEFINITION
The aspect of ergonomics that deals with body measurements, particularly those of size, strength and physical capacity.

Sub-classifications of anthropometric data:

1. Static Data 
   Static data refers to measurements taken while the subject is in a fixed or standard position, for example their height, or arm length.
2. Dynamic Data
   Also known as functional data, dynamic data refers to measurements taken during physical activities, for example their crawling height, overhead reach, and a range of upper body movements. 

Primary Data vs. Secondary Data

Percentiles and Percentile Ranges
Percentile ranges are proportions of a population with a dimension at or less than a given value. For a given demographic (gender, race, age), the 50th percentile is the average.


The 5th percentile mark is the point below which 5% of the population is represented on the graph. 

At the end of the scale, if you were designing an airplane cockpit, and needed to make sure everyone could reach a particular control, you would need to choose the 5th percentile arm length, because the people with the short arms are the most challenging to design for. If they could reach the control, then everyone else, with longer arms, would be able to.

The 95th percentile mark is similarly the point above which the tallest 5% of the population are represented. 

Usually you will find that if you pick the right percentile 95% of the people will be able to use your design. For instance if you were choosing a door height, you would choose the dimension often known as the stature, and pick the 95% percentile value in other words design for the taller people. You would not need to worry about the average height or the 5th percentile one as they would be able to fit through the door anyway.

Range of Sizes vs. Adjustability
Products are designed to allow a variety of users to be able to access and use. This may be based around the idea of provides a range of sizes or the product is adjustable to accommodate different users.

Range of sizes: A selection of sizes a product is made in that caters for the majority of a market.

For example, clothing comes in a range of sizes. For manufacturers to make clothing fit, every individual variance would not be economically possible, thus it tends to come in a range of sizes based on percentile ranges.

Adjustability: The ability of a product to be changed in size, commonly used to increase the range of percentiles that a product is appropriate for.

Multivariate accommodation (fitting in several variables, for example, in a car you need to fit in terms of sitting height, leg room, arm reach, viewing angles, hip breadth, thigh length) means that accepting 5% being designed out for each important dimension is not viable, because different people will be designed out for each variable.

People have different proportions. Those designed out because they are too tall may not be the same as those designed out because their arm reach is too short.

Clearance, Reach, and Adjustability
Clearance
Sometimes people or machines have to move through or work in restricted areas, for example, maintenance work. Clearance provides access for the 95th percentile, and is considered in ubiquitous amenities such as a service cover or emergency exits.

Reach 
Reach is also known as the workspace envelope. A workspace envelope is a 3-dimensional space within which you can carry out physical work activities when you are at a fixed location. 

Should be designed for the 5th percentile of the user population

Designing through context: Aims in design 

10.3: Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM)

10.3
Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM)
Essential idea: Computer-integrated manufacturing uses computers to automatically monitor and control the entire production of a product.

Computer Integrated Manufacture
CIM is a system of manufacturing that uses computers to integrate the processing of production, business and manufacturing in order to create more efficient production lines. Under a CIM system, all teams can share the same information and easily communicate with one another.

A CIM system uses computer networks to integrate the processing of production and business information with manufacturing operations to create cooperative and smooth-running production lines.

Elements of CIM

Design 
In a CIM system, this is accomplished by a design department through computer aided design while considering the product requirements.

Planning
The planning department take the design and on the computer system and database established by the design department and enriches it with production data and information to produce a plan for the most efficient method production of the product.

Purchasing
The purchase department through the computer system orders the necessary materials to manufacture the product, keeping costs to a minimum.This means that materials/components are ordered as needed (JIT).

Cost accounting
The finance department uses a computer system to deal with the financial resources of a company. Planning of investment, working capital, and cash flow control, realization of receipts, accounting and allocation of funds are the major tasks of the finance departments.

Inventory control
Computerized inventory control systems make it possible to integrate the various functional subsystems that are a part of the inventory management into a single cohesive system. 

Distribution
Distribution (or warehousing) uses the computer system to aid in organizing the storage and retreival of raw materials, components, finished goods as well as shipment of items. 

10.2: Lean Production

10.2 
Lean Production
Essential idea: Lean production aims to eliminate waste and maximise the value of a product based on the perspective of the consumer.

Lean production considers product and process design as an ongoing activity and not a one-off task, and should be viewed as a long-term strategy.



Characteristics of lean production

Lean production aims to eliminate waste and maximize the value of a product based on the perspective of the consumer. Such characteristics include:

1. Jit supplies
   Getting the right amount of material to the production line JIT
2. Highly trained multi-skilled workforce
   Having experts in place to ensure that no time is wasted
3. Quality control and continuous improvement 
   Checks are made at every stage of production to quickly identify and fix any problems that arise. Improvements to the system are actively sought.
4. Zero defects 
   Ensuring that time, material and energy are not wasted producing a sub-standard product
5. Zero inventory
   Products are manufactured JIT to be sold

Focuses on continual feedback and incremental improvement

Principles of Lean Production
There are several key principles of lean production. If any of these principles are not met this could result in failure or a lack of commitment.  Without commitment the process becomes ineffective.

10 principles of lean production:

1. Eliminating waste
2. Minimizing inventory
3. Maximizing flow
4. Pulling production from customer demand
5. Meeting customer requirements
6. Doing it right the first time
7. Empowering workers
8. Designing for rapid changeover
9. Partnering with suppliers
10. Creating a culture of continuous movement

Value Stream Mapping
Value stream mapping is a lean production management tool used to analyze current and future processes for the production of a product through to delivery to the consumer. Consider the contribution of value stream mapping to the design of an effective lean production method.

Value stream mapping allows production managers to plan the manufacture of a product from start (purchase of raw materials) to finish (sale to customer) and identify potential problems in the system.

• helps to identify Value and Waste in production

Workflow Analysis
Workflow analysis is the review of workflow processes in order to identify potential improvements. Value stream mapping provides a 'big picture' of the manufacturing processes, but workflow analysis is concerned with the details of the production line.

Identifies potential improvements by considering the sequence, tools and even worker movement to ensure the highest possible efficiency in the system.


Product Family
The concept of standardized specifications, components or assemblies within a product family or associated brands allows companies to create a competitive advantage. A product family is a group of products using similar processing methods.



Role of the Workforce
The development of a highly skilled workforce can build deep understanding of how the production process works and allows workers at all levels to identify areas of the workflow to be improved.

• reduces costs 
• empowers the workforce
• gives them a sense of ownership and loyalty to the company 

Kaizen
Kaizen is a culture of continuous improvement originating in Japan and considered an important aspect of an organization's long-term strategy. It is a philosophy and commitment to continuous process and product improvement of processes in manufacturing, engineering, business management or any process.

Toyota as a company embraces the ways of Kaizen in their manufacturing

Lead time
Lead time refers to the time quoted to customers (usually in days or weeks) between the date of purchase and the date of delivery. (The time between the initiation and the execution of a process)

In industry, lead time reduction is an important part of lean manufacturing.

The 5 Ss: sorting, stabilizing, shining, standardizing, sustaining the practice
The Five S's are a formal approach to cleaning and organizing the workplace involving these five steps;

• Sort
• Set
• Shine
• Standardize
• Sustain

The 7 wastes: overproduction, waiting, transporting, inappropriate processing, unnecessary inventory and unnecessary/excess motion.

Of all these wastes, overproduction is the worst as it inherently incorporates all of the others. When you manufacture a product that will never be sold, the following happens;

• The raw material used is wasted
• The energy of the manufacturer is wasted
• The time and movement of the workers is wasted
• The transportation of the raw material and the finished product is wasted

Advantages and Disadvantages of Lean Production
Advantages

• Minimizes waste, reduces cost
• less impact on the environment
• Quickly adaptable to the market pushes
• Little capital is tied up in raw material or unsold stock
• Increased autonomy for workers - leading to higher moral

Disadvantages

• One problem in production stops the whole process
• Manufacturers rely on suppliers, one mistake by them halts production
• More suitable for large scale production
• When a certain level of refinement is met, using lean methods to squeeze more economy from production can discourage workers, reversing positive motivation and undermining your leadership

10.1: Just in Time (JIT) and Just in Case (JIC)

10.1 
Just in Time and Just in Case
Essential idea: Just in time and just in case are opposing production strategies utilised by the manufacturer.

Just in Time (JIT)
A situation where a company does not allocate space to the storage of components or completed items, but instead orders or manufactures them when required. Large storage areas are not needed and items that are not ordered are not made.

Advantages

1. Production to order with materials being supplied JIT cuts down on storage space
2. Reduced capital investment as capital is not tied up in unused raw materials or unsold products
3. Reduced work in progress
4. Increased efficiency
5. Improved stock control
6. Saves money - no need for storage costs

Disadvantages

1. If any of the stock is faulty then more has to be ordered from a supplier which could slow down the lead time and production processes
2. Companies may not benefit for economies of scale if they are purchasing smaller qualities.

Example:

Dell's Just in Time Manufacturing system

Just-in-time (JIT) manufacturing is specific type of inventory production strategy that is used to improve a company’s return on investment through a cutback of stock held. Dell, a computer oriented firm, has integrated JIT which cuts on their need for stock management.

Just in Case (JIC)
Just in Case manufacturing is the traditional model of production, in which products are created in advance and in excess of demand. According to the principles of lean production, the JIC model wastes resources because inventories must be maintained. The JIT model of manufacturing was developed to eliminate the wastefulness of the traditional model.

Advantages

1. Every customer becomes a sale (they can buy it straightaway)
2. The manufacturer has a 'buffer' of goods in stock in case of unforeseen circumstances
3. The manufacturer can respond quickly to a demand for a product
4. The manufacturer can produce a steady flow of product and have a stable workforce
5. Less capital costs than JIT - information and communication technology systems , stock control systems
6. Able to stock pile supplies or finished products.

Disadvantages

1. Shop owners have to hold a lot of inventory
2. A large investment at the start of the business
3. It occupies a lot of space, which can be expensive
4. These products might spol leading to waste
5. If trends change, you could be left with a lot of unsellable products

6.1: Characteristics of Classic Design

A classic design or a design classic is a manufactured product that has timeless aesthetic appeal. Regardless in what year or time period it still remains at a high standard. A classic design is instantly recognisable and will provoke different emotional responses, for example, nostalgia, wow factor, a want or hate. These designs are often referred to iconic. The longevity of a classic design suggests quality and the continued demand for such products is not dependent on heavy marketing or advertising, although this often takes place to reinforce the status and remind new generations of consumers of the intrinsic value of the classic design.

Image

Image makes a classic design instantly recognisable and provokes emotional reactions.

• Highly recognisable aesthetics 
• Representational of an external form
• Evokes emotional attachement 
• Examples include the shape of the coca cola bottle or the Volkswagen Beatle

Status and culture

Classic design can increase in value and can project a certain status as they become more desirable.

A classic design can indicate the social position of an individual.

• Increase the perceived status of a person
• Connections with the elite class
• Conveys a feeling of satisfaction
• A feeling of owning a rarity

Culture

Design classics can reflect cultural influences.

It may be a national or religious cultural influence, e.g. Vegemite is strongly associated with Australia.

It may concern a sub-culture such as a particular youth culture or movement. For example, UK skinhead's footwear were Dr Martens boots with its yellow stitching.

Evokes emotional attachments, nostalgia and a sense of belonging. 

Obsolescence

Is something becoming obsolete or of no longer any use. Consumer electronics such as mobile phones fall into this category.

• A classic design defies obsolescence
• It is timeless
• It is still a desired object long after they have ceased to be manufacture
• A classic design transcends its original function
• Its unchanging design spans time 

Mass Production

Mass production contributes to a product reaching classic design status such as the Volkswagen.

• being mass-produces spanning decades leads to it being ever present or omnipresent.
• Mass production made cards affordable so it sold well
• Mass- Production made them easily available
• Its simple design lent itself to mass production

Ubiquitous/Omnipresence

• A classic design often has a constant presence, or omnipresence, in a rapidly changing context and has been in constant circulation

Dominant Design

A dominant design contains those implicit features of a product that are recognised as essential by a majority of manufacturers and purchasers.

Classic designs that are also dominant designs in the market place are difficult to change them

• because it is popular or omnipresencent
• Those that have defied obsolescence and have been a round a long time tend to have emotional attachments
• Nostalgia
• Dominant design has been around a while, if it changes not so recognisable and the company could risk profits.